Transition offensive strategy may involve a full-court "fast break", or a "secondary break" (see "Transition Offense") wherein the offense attempts to quickly move the ball up the floor in hopes of getting the easy lay-up. The right "wing" is O2, and the left wing is O3. What altitude gives the best endurance for the C-182? 94b ge90 technical publications Every skeletal muscle has three main parts: the origin, insertion, and belly. that can be used in the constraint analysis equations above. The design process usually begins with a set of design objectives such as these we have examined, a desired range, payload weight, rate of climb, takeoff and landing distances, top speed, ceiling, etc. Muscles make up a large part of the anatomy (structure) of the back. What could cause a muscle and tendon strain? We could put these limits on the same plot if we wish. Your core is made up of the deep muscles of your abdomen and back. To see if we can climb at the desired rate over a reasonable range of altitudes we would need to look at the climb relationship: This would give us another value of thrust needed to reach the target rate of climb for a given weight and, since the equation contains power required, which is drag times speed, the wing area would also be a factor. Take our assessment to begin a well-rounded back pain program in 4 minutes or less. Transition defense may be simply getting back down the floor as quickly as possible on defense, or may involve a "full-court press", which can be man-to-man, or a "zone press" (see "Transition Defense"). We need to keep in mind that there are limits to that cruise speed. One way to approach this would be to go back to the equations in earlier chapters and iterate among them, trying to find wing areas, weights, and engine sizes that would accomplish our design objectives. If you are experiencing back pain, take a free Goodpath assessment for a personalized back pain program designed just for you: As with other parts of the body, the back has several layers of muscles. Figure 9.6: James F. Marchman (2004). Design goals might include a maximum speed in cruise of 400 mph and a maximum range goal of 800 miles, however these do not occur at the same flight conditions. Legal. GoodPaths personalized approach to care helps provide relief faster. 9: The Role of Performance in Aircraft Design - Constraint Analysis is shared under a CC BY 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by James F. Marchman (Virginia Tech Libraries' Open Education Initiative) via source content that was edited to conform to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is available upon request. Different numbering systems exist and coaches have their own favorite ways of doing this. This presents somewhat of a problem since we are plotting the relationships in terms of thrust and weight and thrust is a function of altitude while weight is undoubtedly less in cruise than at takeoff and initial climb-out. 
If T/W = 1.0 or greater we need no wing. They often affect the muscles supporting the large curve of the lower back (lumbar spine). Another good text that combines an examination of the design process with a look as several design case studies is Aircraft Design Projects for Engineering Students, by Jenkinson and Marchman, published by the AIAA. Copyright 2001 - 2022, James A. Gels, all rights reserved. Tendon stretches or tears are also called strains. The method normally used is called constraint analysis. This makes sense when one realizes that, unless reverse thrust is used in the landing ground run, thrust does not play a major role in landing. In cruise where lift = weight and thrust = drag, T/W = 1 / [L/D], meaning that the high value of L/D that is needed for a large range goes hand in hand with a low thrust-to-weight ratio. Although you might injure your back, the following can help prevent and protect it: Take breaks if youre sitting/standing for long periods of time - it helps prevent undue stress on your back, Maintain muscle strength - muscle weakness increases the chance of back injuries, Use proper carrying and lifting techniques. This can be put into the drag equation with the numbers found above to get the thrust or power needed to reach that maximum speed. There are five pairs of back muscles that help move the shoulders and upper arms. The above-listed preventive measures are also part of treatment - they can help protect the area and prevent further injury. Each of these muscles is divided into three parts that correspond to the part of the back where theyre located. You could use a "4-out, 1-in offense" with four perimeter players and one post player. Together, they flex or bend the head towards the chest. What we want, however, is the best combination of these parameters for our design goals. The more efficient a plane is in things like cruise the lower its value of T/W. On the other hand, the climb curve should be plotted for optimum conditions; i.e., maximum rate of climb (minimum power required conditions for a prop aircraft) since that is the design target in climb. They help support bones and make them move. The trapezoid attaches to the occipital bone of the skull, the outer portion of the clavicle, and the acromion process of the scapula. If we assume a coordinated turn we find that once again the last two terms in the constraint analysis relationship go to zero since a coordinated turn is made at constant altitude and airspeed. You may want to reverse the ball quickly to "over-shift" a zone defense. 
"box-out" - what every player should do when a shot goes up try to block out, or "box-out", the person he is guarding to keep him away from the basket and prevent him from getting "inside position" for the rebound. Back pain is common and might be caused by a problem with a muscle. evolutionary rapid radiations frequent It should be noted that in plotting curves for cruise and climb a flight speed must be selected for each. Or in some cases the power-to-weight ratio (P/W) is used instead of T/W. For example, a muscle group located in the chest also helps move the shoulders. Note that just as the drag equation is a function of both V and 1/V, this is a function of both W/S and 1/(W/S). 1 0 obj<>/Font<>/XObject<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text/ImageC/ImageI]/ExtGState<>>>>>
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The climb curve would probably be plotted at sea level conditions since that is where the target maximum rate of climb is normally specified. Find the range for the C-182 assuming the flight starts at 150 mph and an altitude of 7500 feet and stays at constant angle of attack. Depending on how the muscles are counted (eg - muscles that support breathing may or may not be counted), the total number may vary. There is no restriction on the time defensive players can occupy the paint. Use this illustration stretch a rope between the ball-hander and your man (let's say between the point guard and the wing). A "trap" is set when two defenders double-team the ball-handler, trying to force a turn-over or a jump-ball situation. We might start with cruise since a certain minimum range is often a design objective. This article gives an overview of the backs structure and its major muscles. To takeoff in a short distance we might want a high maximum lift coefficient to get a low takeoff speed, a large wing area to give a lot of lift at low speed, and a lot of thrust to accelerate to takeoff distance in as short a ground run as possible. Individually, they rotate the head left or right. Normally we would look at turns at sea level conditions and at takeoff weight. The "point" is out front, and the "wings" on either side. Note that the thrust ratio above is normally just the ratio of density since it is normally assumed that. There are several pairs of deep muscles that help move the spine (again, the vertebrae) - not all are located in the back. He may "switch" his player with another team-mate if he gets screened. More involved treatment may include prescription medicines, injections, or surgery. Figure 9.1: James F. Marchman (2004). Levator means raise (think of an elevator). "Weak-side" is the opposite side away from the ball. Injuries such as a muscle or tendon strain are common and can lead to pain. This page will be like a basketball dictionary, defining basketball terms. Wing loading for sailplanes is usually in the range of 5-8 pounds per square foot, around 17 lb/ft2 for general aviation planes, and over 100 lb/ft2 for fighters. The farther apart the ball-hander and the wing player are, the more the defender can drop back "up the line", and still be in position to intercept or deflect the pass. If, for example, we want to look at conditions for straight and level flight we can simplify the equation knowing that: Straight and level flight: n = 1, dh/dt = 0, dV/dt = 0, giving: So for a given estimate of our designs profile drag coefficient, aspect ratio, and Oswald efficiency factor [ k = 1/(ARe)] we can plot T/W versus W/S for any selected altitude (density) and cruise speed. large areas of the trunk. and B = (g/W) [ S(CD CLg) + a] . This can be done fairly easily by going back to the constraint analysis equations and substituting P/V everywhere that a thrust term appears. Fortunately, the answer is yes. The question with the design of an airplane as with a car or a tire, is how do we arrive at the best compromise that will result in a good all around design while still being better than average in one or two desired areas? If we want an airplane that only does one thing well we need only look at that one thing. These included takeoff and landing, turns, straight and level flight in cruise, and climb. There are many of these plays to choose from on this website. And this can be written [W/S] = Vstall2CLmax, On the plot above this would be a vertical line, looking something like this. They help move the arms and shoulders. The levator scapulae muscles raise the bones of the shoulders. It says that we need a higher thrust-to-weight ratio to climb than to fly straight and level. Raymer proposed the relationship below: Sa = 1000 for an airliner with a 3 degree glideslope, 600 for a general aviation type power off approach. The back is made of the spine, discs, nerves, muscles, tendons, ligaments, and other structures. Design is a process of compromise and no one design is ever best at everything. Between the vertebra, discs provide cushioning, Nerves extend through small holes in the vertebrae to different parts of the body, Tendons attach the muscles to the vertebrae, The muscles support the spine and allow for motion. In the figure above this will be either where the takeoff and climb curves intersect or where the takeoff and landing curves intersect. By optimum we mean that we are looking for the minimum thrust-to-weight ratio that will enable the airplane to meet its performance goals and we would like to have the highest possible wing loading. Finding this value of drag would set the thrust we need for cruise. It can tell us how much speed we can gain by descending to a lower altitude, converting potential energy to kinetic energy, or how we can perhaps climb above the static ceiling of the aircraft by converting excess speed (kinetic energy) into extra altitude (potential energy). For example, the longissimus capitis muscle helps move the head, but it also helps extend - i.e. It divides the "full-court" (entire playing area) into two "half-courts". Adapted from James F. Marchman (2004). Accessibility StatementFor more information contact us atinfo@libretexts.orgor check out our status page at https://status.libretexts.org. In this set, you have three guards, or "perimeter players", and two "post players", rather than the old definition of two guards, two forwards and a center. In reality, the specific excess power relationship tells us how the excess engine power, Pavail Preq , can be used to increase the aircrafts potential energy (climb) or its kinetic energy (speed). An iterative solution may be necessary. T/W = (qCD0)/(W/S) + (kn2/q)(W/S) + (1/V)dh/dt + (1/g)dV/dt . PayPal verified and trusted by coaches worldwide since 2001. "Transition offense" is the former, and "transition defense" is the latter. In other words, if we wanted to design an aircraft that could takeoff and land in a very short distance we can look at the takeoff and landing distance equations and identify the factors that would minimize these distances. 2. There are groups of muscles that move the head, shoulders, arms, hips, legs, and spine itself. Your "fore-court" is the half-court with your basket, and the "back-court" is the half-court with the opponent's basket. It can be noted that in the A and B terms respectively we have the thrust-to-weight ratio and the inverse of the wing loading (W/S); hence, for a given set of takeoff parameters and a desired ground run distance (STO) a plot can be made of T/W versus W/S. Having a strong core is essential to back health. Effect of R & e Variation on max Range Cessna 182. CC BY 4.0. When plotting the cruise curve in a constraint analysis plot it should be assumed that the aircraft is cruising at a desired normal cruise speed, which will be neither the top speed at that altitude nor the speed for maximum range. This would give a curve that looks similar to the plots for cruise and climb. Treatment for back injuries may include supplements and topical products, exercise for strength and flexibility, and weight management. There are the terms, "on the line" and "up the line". Muscle or tendon injuries are common ones. Figure 9.3: James F. Marchman (2004). This page has been reviewed by the Goodpath medical team. The infraspinatus muscles help rotate the shoulders and arms. What could cause a muscle strain? If the engine is capable of producing more power than the power required, that excess power can be used to make the plane accelerate to a faster speed (increasing kinetic energy) or to climb to a higher altitude (increasing potential energy), or to give some combination of both. The desire for minimum thrust is obvious, based on the need to minimize fuel consumption and engine cost. 
Nonetheless, we can see that three parameters; thrust, weight, and wing area, are important factors to consider in takeoff. In an earlier chapter on climb and glide we looked at something called specific excess power and defined it as: Ps = [Pavail Preq] / W = [(T D)V] / W. We may, hopefully, remember using this relationship to find the rate of climb but we may not recall that it was only the correct rate of climb in a special case, where speed (V) was constant; i.e., the static rate of climb: If we go back to that earlier chapter we will find that in a more general relationship we had: Ps = [Pavail Preq] / W = [(T D)V] / W = [dh/dt] + (V/g)(dV/dt). Rather than re-defining them here, please read the page on "Cutting and Faking". Man-to-man defenders must learn the meaning of "on-ball" (defending the player with the ball), "deny" (preventing your man from getting the ball), and "help-side" (sagging off your man to help your team-mates prevent inside "penetration" (see Basic Defense). For example, lets look at stall. Flexor muscles bend the joints, while extensor muscles straighten them. There are seven pairs of muscles that move the shoulders (Three of these pairs are located in the chest, thus they are not discussed here). Years ago, numbers were not used. But through good use of things like constraint analysis methods we can turn those compromises into optimum solutions. We also acknowledge previous National Science Foundation support under grant numbers 1246120, 1525057, and 1413739. The analysis may suggest that some of the constraints (i.e., the performance targets) need to be relaxed. b. These muscles start at the breastbone (sternum) and collarbone (clavicle) and end behind the ears (at the mastoid process of the temporal bone of the skull). a "screen" and a "pick" (same thing to me). Numbering players, offensive terminology. The other four pairs of muscles are the trapezius, levator scapulae, rhomboid major, and rhomboid minor (the rhomboids). The plot that will be different from all of these is that for takeoff. To land in a short distance we might want to also design a plane with a large wing and high maximum lift coefficient but now the thrust isnt as important as the amount of braking friction available unless it is reverse thrust that we are talking about. If any one has a term to add to this list, or disagrees with my definition, please email me. Hence, what we have done through the specific excess power relationship is nothing but a different way to get a familiar result. %PDF-1.5
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The cruise curve will normally be plotted at the desired design cruise altitude. In this manner, we can find values of weight, wing area, and thrust that match our desired cruise capability. Figure 9.7: Effect of R & e Variation on max Range Cessna 182. They are the spinalis, iliocostalis, and longissimus. We cant fly straight and level at speeds below the stall speed or above the maximum speed where the drag equals the maximum thrust from the engine. There are many types and causes of back injuries. For instance, the teres minor muscles aid in rotating or turning the arms. By moving some of your offensive players to one side of the floor (e.g. One that is fairly easy to deal with is turning. Constraint analysis is essentially a way to look at aircraft weight, wing area, and engine thrust for various phases of flight and come to a decision about meaningful starting values of all three parameters for a given set of design objectives. Constraint analysis is an important element in a larger process called aircraft design. These two ratios are tied together in aircraft performance through the same power relationship that we looked at when we first examined climb and glide. "On the line" means your defensive position is such that you can see your man and the ball, and your body is directly on that imaginary line usually with chest toward the player, and head toward the ball with arm up in the passing lane, in a "full denial" situation. In this final plot the space above the climb and takeoff curves and to the left of the landing line is our acceptable design space. Effect of Desired Landing Characteristics on Aircraft Design Space. CC BY 4.0. In a "1-4 set", you bring both post players up to the elbows ("stack offense"), or you can drop both wings down to the corners ("low stack"). We know that in cruise since lift must equal weight, we can select a design value of cruise lift coefficient (commonly around 0.2 to 0.3) and a desired cruise speed and altitude and solve for the needed wing area. The sternocleidomastoids are strong, large muscles located on either side of the neck. See "Junk Defenses" and "Match-up Zone Defense". Against a full-court press defense, the offense will often use a "press-breaker", a strategy designed to counteract the full-court press. Medical Writer: Beth Holloway, RN, M. Ed; Updated: November 2021. Another factor to consider would be the desired maximum speed at the cruise altitude. "Out-of-bounds plays" are used in an attempt to get a quick scoring opportunity when you have to inbounds the ball (either under your basket, or along the sideline.) Here we should note that the space to the right of the dashed line for stall is out of bounds since to fly here would require a higher maximum lift coefficient. We might find, for example, that by accepting an additional 500 feet in our takeoff ground run we can get by with a significantly smaller engine. Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach, AIAA, Washington, DC. This addition to the plot tells us the obvious in a way. It does this by looking at two important ratios, the thrust-to-weight ratio (T/W), the wing loading or ratio of weight-to-planform area (W/S). Stall Cutoff for cap W over cap S values. CC BY 4.0. They are the latissimus dorsi, supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres major, and teres minor. we rewrite this in terms of the ratios above to allow us to make our constraint analysis plots functions of TSL and WTO. We would find, if we looked at the equations we derived for the other types of flight mentioned above that these same three parameters pop up everywhere. An alternative approach often proposed in books on aircraft design is based on statistical takeoff data collected on different types of aircraft. For example, there is the spinalis thoracis muscle located in the upper back or thoracic area. If we were to look at the relationships we found for any of these we could see how we might design an airplane to best accomplish the task at hand. The right low post is O4, and the left low post is O5. "Pick and roll" - a play where an offensive player sets a "screen" ("pick") on a team-mate's defender, thereby freeing up the team-mate, after which the screener moves, or "rolls" off the screen to the hoop ("pick and roll"), or an open perimeter area for the return pass ("pick and pop"). These extend from the lumbar spine to each of the thigh bones. For the prop aircraft Raymer defines TOP as follows: It should be noted here that it is often common when conducting a constraint analysis for a propeller type aircraft to plot the power-to-weight ratio versus wing loading rather than using the thrust-to-weight ratio. Those that are, include the sacrospinalis (spinalis, iliocostalis, longissimus), and quadratus lumborum muscles. The vertebrae are different depending on the level of the spine. If your offensive player has a foot on, or inside these lines for 3 seconds or longer, he will be called for the 3-second violation. Other muscles are small and cover much less space. How sensitive is the maximum range for the Cessna 182 to aspect ratio and the Oswald efficiency factor, i.e. First is that the figure from Raymer on the preceding page has two types of plots on it, one for ground run only and the other for ground run plus the distance required to clear a 50 ft obstacle. "Ball-side" refers to the side of the floor where the ball is. The sacrospinalis (also called the erector spinae) is actually three muscles. They also work with sternocleidomastoid muscles to rotate the head left and right. It is, for example, a common mistake for students to look at the performance goals for an aircraft design and just plug in the numbers given without thinking about them. Origin - where a tendon attaches the muscle to a less movable bone, Insertion - where a tendon attaches that muscle to a more movable bone. The cruise based calculations mentioned above would give us valuable design information for our airplane based on a desired cruise speed and altitude for a design weight and would tell us the wing area and thrust needed for that cruise condition and the thrust needed to cruise at a desired maximum speed. 
High thrust will minimize the takeoff ground run but once thrust becomes as high as the weight of the plane we might as well take off vertically! They also work with sternocleidomastoid muscles to rotate the head left and right. to the wing planform shape? Acknowledgment: Thanks to Dustin Grissom for reviewing the above and developing examples to go with it. To answer this, plot range versus aspect ratio using e.= 0.8 and varying AR from 4 through 10, and plot range versus e for an aspect ratio of 7.366 with e varying from 0.6 through 1.0. Once across this line (all three points - the ball and both feet), they may not pass or dribble the ball back across this line, or step on the line (while having possession) or the "over and back" violation occurs. In other words, only when velocity (V) is constant is this relationship strictly equal to the rate of climb. The "short corner" is between the corner and the basket, about 12 feet out. There a terms referring to types of offensive cuts made by players, usually moving without the ball. First, lets look at the "half-court" diagram to define areas of the floor. These two terms refer to a defender's position on the floor, relative to the ball-handler and his man. It would not, however tell us if this would result in a good ability to climb or the ability to takeoff and land in a reasonable distance. "Zone defense" - each defender, rather than guarding a specific opposing player, is assigned to guard or cover a certain area of the floor, or zone. Find the maximum range and the maximum endurance for both aircraft. The spine is made up of small bones called vertebrae. Available from https://archive.org/details/hw-9_20210805. They help to bend the back to either side. "Post up" - offensive move wherein a low post player positions himself, and "seals" his defender off so that he can receive the pass down low on the block, where he can use a "post move" for a score, or quickly pass the ball back outside to an open team-mate for a three-pointer (going "inside-out"). Effect of Desired Takeoff Characteristics on Aircraft Design Space. CC BY 4.0. The back muscles are skeletal muscles. Muscles are made up of individual fibers, The fascia covers and supports the muscles. All we need to do is go to the turn equations and find the desired airspeed and load factor (n), put these into the equation and plot it. transverse process, spinous process) where the muscles attach. Doing this will add another curve to our plot and it might look like the figure below. If our desire is to look at an optimum range we might want to find the ratio of lift to drag that will maximize range (for example, for a propeller driven plane Rmax occurs with flight at [L/D]max or at minimum drag conditions). For example, the serratus posterior superior and the serratus posterior inferior muscles, although located in the back, support breathing, so they may be counted as respiratory muscles. Just as a car cannot get its best gas mileage when the car is moving at top speed, an airplane isnt going to get maximum range at its top cruise speed. They are the sternocleidomastoid, semispinalis capitis, splenius capitis, and longissimus capitis muscles. The "open post offense" (5-out) is yet another. As an example, most piston engine aircraft will cruise at an engine power setting somewhere between 55% and 75% of maximum engine power. Effect of Aircraft Parameters on Takeoff Distance. CC BY 4.0. These are then plotted to find optimum values of wing loading and thrust-to-weight ratio. For climb at constant speed dV/dt = 0 and our equation becomes, T/W = (qCD0)/(W/S) + (kn2/q)(W/S) + (1/V)dh/dt. Lets look at how the equation can be rearranged to help us examine the performance needs in various types of flight. Of course there are limits to be considered. We need to note that to make the plot above we had to choose a cruise speed. One way to resolve this issue is to write our equations in terms of ratios of thrust at altitude divided by thrust at sea level and weight at altitude divided by weight at takeoff. Many different zone sets are used, 2-3, 3-2, 1-3-1, 1-2-2, etc (see "Zone Defense"). A car can be designed to go really fast or to get really good gas mileage, but probably not both. They start at the top of the neck and go down to the tailbone. The value of T/W will depend on the desired flight speed, the wing area, and the efficiency (L/D) of the wing. "Up the line" means you are in a position backed off from this imaginary line, toward the basket, in a position where you can see both ball and your man, prevent the "back-cut", and yet be able to force the ball-handler to pass away from your man.
If T/W = 1.0 or greater we need no wing. They often affect the muscles supporting the large curve of the lower back (lumbar spine). Another good text that combines an examination of the design process with a look as several design case studies is Aircraft Design Projects for Engineering Students, by Jenkinson and Marchman, published by the AIAA. Copyright 2001 - 2022, James A. Gels, all rights reserved. Tendon stretches or tears are also called strains. The method normally used is called constraint analysis. This makes sense when one realizes that, unless reverse thrust is used in the landing ground run, thrust does not play a major role in landing. In cruise where lift = weight and thrust = drag, T/W = 1 / [L/D], meaning that the high value of L/D that is needed for a large range goes hand in hand with a low thrust-to-weight ratio. Although you might injure your back, the following can help prevent and protect it: Take breaks if youre sitting/standing for long periods of time - it helps prevent undue stress on your back, Maintain muscle strength - muscle weakness increases the chance of back injuries, Use proper carrying and lifting techniques. This can be put into the drag equation with the numbers found above to get the thrust or power needed to reach that maximum speed. There are five pairs of back muscles that help move the shoulders and upper arms. The above-listed preventive measures are also part of treatment - they can help protect the area and prevent further injury. Each of these muscles is divided into three parts that correspond to the part of the back where theyre located. You could use a "4-out, 1-in offense" with four perimeter players and one post player. Together, they flex or bend the head towards the chest. What we want, however, is the best combination of these parameters for our design goals. The more efficient a plane is in things like cruise the lower its value of T/W. On the other hand, the climb curve should be plotted for optimum conditions; i.e., maximum rate of climb (minimum power required conditions for a prop aircraft) since that is the design target in climb. They help support bones and make them move. The trapezoid attaches to the occipital bone of the skull, the outer portion of the clavicle, and the acromion process of the scapula. If we assume a coordinated turn we find that once again the last two terms in the constraint analysis relationship go to zero since a coordinated turn is made at constant altitude and airspeed. You may want to reverse the ball quickly to "over-shift" a zone defense. "box-out" - what every player should do when a shot goes up try to block out, or "box-out", the person he is guarding to keep him away from the basket and prevent him from getting "inside position" for the rebound. Back pain is common and might be caused by a problem with a muscle. evolutionary rapid radiations frequent It should be noted that in plotting curves for cruise and climb a flight speed must be selected for each. Or in some cases the power-to-weight ratio (P/W) is used instead of T/W. For example, a muscle group located in the chest also helps move the shoulders. Note that just as the drag equation is a function of both V and 1/V, this is a function of both W/S and 1/(W/S). 1 0 obj<>/Font<>/XObject<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text/ImageC/ImageI]/ExtGState<>>>>>
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The climb curve would probably be plotted at sea level conditions since that is where the target maximum rate of climb is normally specified. Find the range for the C-182 assuming the flight starts at 150 mph and an altitude of 7500 feet and stays at constant angle of attack. Depending on how the muscles are counted (eg - muscles that support breathing may or may not be counted), the total number may vary. There is no restriction on the time defensive players can occupy the paint. Use this illustration stretch a rope between the ball-hander and your man (let's say between the point guard and the wing). A "trap" is set when two defenders double-team the ball-handler, trying to force a turn-over or a jump-ball situation. We might start with cruise since a certain minimum range is often a design objective. This article gives an overview of the backs structure and its major muscles. To takeoff in a short distance we might want a high maximum lift coefficient to get a low takeoff speed, a large wing area to give a lot of lift at low speed, and a lot of thrust to accelerate to takeoff distance in as short a ground run as possible. Individually, they rotate the head left or right. Normally we would look at turns at sea level conditions and at takeoff weight. The "point" is out front, and the "wings" on either side. Note that the thrust ratio above is normally just the ratio of density since it is normally assumed that. There are several pairs of deep muscles that help move the spine (again, the vertebrae) - not all are located in the back. He may "switch" his player with another team-mate if he gets screened. More involved treatment may include prescription medicines, injections, or surgery. Figure 9.1: James F. Marchman (2004). Levator means raise (think of an elevator). "Weak-side" is the opposite side away from the ball. Injuries such as a muscle or tendon strain are common and can lead to pain. This page will be like a basketball dictionary, defining basketball terms. Wing loading for sailplanes is usually in the range of 5-8 pounds per square foot, around 17 lb/ft2 for general aviation planes, and over 100 lb/ft2 for fighters. The farther apart the ball-hander and the wing player are, the more the defender can drop back "up the line", and still be in position to intercept or deflect the pass. If, for example, we want to look at conditions for straight and level flight we can simplify the equation knowing that: Straight and level flight: n = 1, dh/dt = 0, dV/dt = 0, giving: So for a given estimate of our designs profile drag coefficient, aspect ratio, and Oswald efficiency factor [ k = 1/(ARe)] we can plot T/W versus W/S for any selected altitude (density) and cruise speed. large areas of the trunk. and B = (g/W) [ S(CD CLg) + a] . This can be done fairly easily by going back to the constraint analysis equations and substituting P/V everywhere that a thrust term appears. Fortunately, the answer is yes. The question with the design of an airplane as with a car or a tire, is how do we arrive at the best compromise that will result in a good all around design while still being better than average in one or two desired areas? If we want an airplane that only does one thing well we need only look at that one thing. These included takeoff and landing, turns, straight and level flight in cruise, and climb. There are many of these plays to choose from on this website. And this can be written [W/S] = Vstall2CLmax, On the plot above this would be a vertical line, looking something like this. They help move the arms and shoulders. The levator scapulae muscles raise the bones of the shoulders. It says that we need a higher thrust-to-weight ratio to climb than to fly straight and level. Raymer proposed the relationship below: Sa = 1000 for an airliner with a 3 degree glideslope, 600 for a general aviation type power off approach. The back is made of the spine, discs, nerves, muscles, tendons, ligaments, and other structures. Design is a process of compromise and no one design is ever best at everything. Between the vertebra, discs provide cushioning, Nerves extend through small holes in the vertebrae to different parts of the body, Tendons attach the muscles to the vertebrae, The muscles support the spine and allow for motion. In the figure above this will be either where the takeoff and climb curves intersect or where the takeoff and landing curves intersect. By optimum we mean that we are looking for the minimum thrust-to-weight ratio that will enable the airplane to meet its performance goals and we would like to have the highest possible wing loading. Finding this value of drag would set the thrust we need for cruise. It can tell us how much speed we can gain by descending to a lower altitude, converting potential energy to kinetic energy, or how we can perhaps climb above the static ceiling of the aircraft by converting excess speed (kinetic energy) into extra altitude (potential energy). For example, the longissimus capitis muscle helps move the head, but it also helps extend - i.e. It divides the "full-court" (entire playing area) into two "half-courts". Adapted from James F. Marchman (2004). Accessibility StatementFor more information contact us atinfo@libretexts.orgor check out our status page at https://status.libretexts.org. In this set, you have three guards, or "perimeter players", and two "post players", rather than the old definition of two guards, two forwards and a center. In reality, the specific excess power relationship tells us how the excess engine power, Pavail Preq , can be used to increase the aircrafts potential energy (climb) or its kinetic energy (speed). An iterative solution may be necessary. T/W = (qCD0)/(W/S) + (kn2/q)(W/S) + (1/V)dh/dt + (1/g)dV/dt . PayPal verified and trusted by coaches worldwide since 2001. "Transition offense" is the former, and "transition defense" is the latter. In other words, if we wanted to design an aircraft that could takeoff and land in a very short distance we can look at the takeoff and landing distance equations and identify the factors that would minimize these distances. 2. There are groups of muscles that move the head, shoulders, arms, hips, legs, and spine itself. Your "fore-court" is the half-court with your basket, and the "back-court" is the half-court with the opponent's basket. It can be noted that in the A and B terms respectively we have the thrust-to-weight ratio and the inverse of the wing loading (W/S); hence, for a given set of takeoff parameters and a desired ground run distance (STO) a plot can be made of T/W versus W/S. Having a strong core is essential to back health. Effect of R & e Variation on max Range Cessna 182. CC BY 4.0. When plotting the cruise curve in a constraint analysis plot it should be assumed that the aircraft is cruising at a desired normal cruise speed, which will be neither the top speed at that altitude nor the speed for maximum range. This would give a curve that looks similar to the plots for cruise and climb. Treatment for back injuries may include supplements and topical products, exercise for strength and flexibility, and weight management. There are the terms, "on the line" and "up the line". Muscle or tendon injuries are common ones. Figure 9.3: James F. Marchman (2004). This page has been reviewed by the Goodpath medical team. The infraspinatus muscles help rotate the shoulders and arms. What could cause a muscle strain? If the engine is capable of producing more power than the power required, that excess power can be used to make the plane accelerate to a faster speed (increasing kinetic energy) or to climb to a higher altitude (increasing potential energy), or to give some combination of both. The desire for minimum thrust is obvious, based on the need to minimize fuel consumption and engine cost. Nonetheless, we can see that three parameters; thrust, weight, and wing area, are important factors to consider in takeoff. In an earlier chapter on climb and glide we looked at something called specific excess power and defined it as: Ps = [Pavail Preq] / W = [(T D)V] / W. We may, hopefully, remember using this relationship to find the rate of climb but we may not recall that it was only the correct rate of climb in a special case, where speed (V) was constant; i.e., the static rate of climb: If we go back to that earlier chapter we will find that in a more general relationship we had: Ps = [Pavail Preq] / W = [(T D)V] / W = [dh/dt] + (V/g)(dV/dt). Rather than re-defining them here, please read the page on "Cutting and Faking". Man-to-man defenders must learn the meaning of "on-ball" (defending the player with the ball), "deny" (preventing your man from getting the ball), and "help-side" (sagging off your man to help your team-mates prevent inside "penetration" (see Basic Defense). For example, lets look at stall. Flexor muscles bend the joints, while extensor muscles straighten them. There are seven pairs of muscles that move the shoulders (Three of these pairs are located in the chest, thus they are not discussed here). Years ago, numbers were not used. But through good use of things like constraint analysis methods we can turn those compromises into optimum solutions. We also acknowledge previous National Science Foundation support under grant numbers 1246120, 1525057, and 1413739. The analysis may suggest that some of the constraints (i.e., the performance targets) need to be relaxed. b. These muscles start at the breastbone (sternum) and collarbone (clavicle) and end behind the ears (at the mastoid process of the temporal bone of the skull). a "screen" and a "pick" (same thing to me). Numbering players, offensive terminology. The other four pairs of muscles are the trapezius, levator scapulae, rhomboid major, and rhomboid minor (the rhomboids). The plot that will be different from all of these is that for takeoff. To land in a short distance we might want to also design a plane with a large wing and high maximum lift coefficient but now the thrust isnt as important as the amount of braking friction available unless it is reverse thrust that we are talking about. If any one has a term to add to this list, or disagrees with my definition, please email me. Hence, what we have done through the specific excess power relationship is nothing but a different way to get a familiar result. %PDF-1.5
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The cruise curve will normally be plotted at the desired design cruise altitude. In this manner, we can find values of weight, wing area, and thrust that match our desired cruise capability. Figure 9.7: Effect of R & e Variation on max Range Cessna 182. They are the spinalis, iliocostalis, and longissimus. We cant fly straight and level at speeds below the stall speed or above the maximum speed where the drag equals the maximum thrust from the engine. There are many types and causes of back injuries. For instance, the teres minor muscles aid in rotating or turning the arms. By moving some of your offensive players to one side of the floor (e.g. One that is fairly easy to deal with is turning. Constraint analysis is essentially a way to look at aircraft weight, wing area, and engine thrust for various phases of flight and come to a decision about meaningful starting values of all three parameters for a given set of design objectives. Constraint analysis is an important element in a larger process called aircraft design. These two ratios are tied together in aircraft performance through the same power relationship that we looked at when we first examined climb and glide. "On the line" means your defensive position is such that you can see your man and the ball, and your body is directly on that imaginary line usually with chest toward the player, and head toward the ball with arm up in the passing lane, in a "full denial" situation. In this final plot the space above the climb and takeoff curves and to the left of the landing line is our acceptable design space. Effect of Desired Landing Characteristics on Aircraft Design Space. CC BY 4.0. In a "1-4 set", you bring both post players up to the elbows ("stack offense"), or you can drop both wings down to the corners ("low stack"). We know that in cruise since lift must equal weight, we can select a design value of cruise lift coefficient (commonly around 0.2 to 0.3) and a desired cruise speed and altitude and solve for the needed wing area. The sternocleidomastoids are strong, large muscles located on either side of the neck. See "Junk Defenses" and "Match-up Zone Defense". Against a full-court press defense, the offense will often use a "press-breaker", a strategy designed to counteract the full-court press. Medical Writer: Beth Holloway, RN, M. Ed; Updated: November 2021. Another factor to consider would be the desired maximum speed at the cruise altitude. "Out-of-bounds plays" are used in an attempt to get a quick scoring opportunity when you have to inbounds the ball (either under your basket, or along the sideline.) Here we should note that the space to the right of the dashed line for stall is out of bounds since to fly here would require a higher maximum lift coefficient. We might find, for example, that by accepting an additional 500 feet in our takeoff ground run we can get by with a significantly smaller engine. Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach, AIAA, Washington, DC. This addition to the plot tells us the obvious in a way. It does this by looking at two important ratios, the thrust-to-weight ratio (T/W), the wing loading or ratio of weight-to-planform area (W/S). Stall Cutoff for cap W over cap S values. CC BY 4.0. They are the latissimus dorsi, supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres major, and teres minor. we rewrite this in terms of the ratios above to allow us to make our constraint analysis plots functions of TSL and WTO. We would find, if we looked at the equations we derived for the other types of flight mentioned above that these same three parameters pop up everywhere. An alternative approach often proposed in books on aircraft design is based on statistical takeoff data collected on different types of aircraft. For example, there is the spinalis thoracis muscle located in the upper back or thoracic area. If we were to look at the relationships we found for any of these we could see how we might design an airplane to best accomplish the task at hand. The right low post is O4, and the left low post is O5. "Pick and roll" - a play where an offensive player sets a "screen" ("pick") on a team-mate's defender, thereby freeing up the team-mate, after which the screener moves, or "rolls" off the screen to the hoop ("pick and roll"), or an open perimeter area for the return pass ("pick and pop"). These extend from the lumbar spine to each of the thigh bones. For the prop aircraft Raymer defines TOP as follows: It should be noted here that it is often common when conducting a constraint analysis for a propeller type aircraft to plot the power-to-weight ratio versus wing loading rather than using the thrust-to-weight ratio. Those that are, include the sacrospinalis (spinalis, iliocostalis, longissimus), and quadratus lumborum muscles. The vertebrae are different depending on the level of the spine. If your offensive player has a foot on, or inside these lines for 3 seconds or longer, he will be called for the 3-second violation. Other muscles are small and cover much less space. How sensitive is the maximum range for the Cessna 182 to aspect ratio and the Oswald efficiency factor, i.e. First is that the figure from Raymer on the preceding page has two types of plots on it, one for ground run only and the other for ground run plus the distance required to clear a 50 ft obstacle. "Ball-side" refers to the side of the floor where the ball is. The sacrospinalis (also called the erector spinae) is actually three muscles. They also work with sternocleidomastoid muscles to rotate the head left and right. It is, for example, a common mistake for students to look at the performance goals for an aircraft design and just plug in the numbers given without thinking about them. Origin - where a tendon attaches the muscle to a less movable bone, Insertion - where a tendon attaches that muscle to a more movable bone. The cruise based calculations mentioned above would give us valuable design information for our airplane based on a desired cruise speed and altitude for a design weight and would tell us the wing area and thrust needed for that cruise condition and the thrust needed to cruise at a desired maximum speed. High thrust will minimize the takeoff ground run but once thrust becomes as high as the weight of the plane we might as well take off vertically! They also work with sternocleidomastoid muscles to rotate the head left and right. to the wing planform shape? Acknowledgment: Thanks to Dustin Grissom for reviewing the above and developing examples to go with it. To answer this, plot range versus aspect ratio using e.= 0.8 and varying AR from 4 through 10, and plot range versus e for an aspect ratio of 7.366 with e varying from 0.6 through 1.0. Once across this line (all three points - the ball and both feet), they may not pass or dribble the ball back across this line, or step on the line (while having possession) or the "over and back" violation occurs. In other words, only when velocity (V) is constant is this relationship strictly equal to the rate of climb. The "short corner" is between the corner and the basket, about 12 feet out. There a terms referring to types of offensive cuts made by players, usually moving without the ball. First, lets look at the "half-court" diagram to define areas of the floor. These two terms refer to a defender's position on the floor, relative to the ball-handler and his man. It would not, however tell us if this would result in a good ability to climb or the ability to takeoff and land in a reasonable distance. "Zone defense" - each defender, rather than guarding a specific opposing player, is assigned to guard or cover a certain area of the floor, or zone. Find the maximum range and the maximum endurance for both aircraft. The spine is made up of small bones called vertebrae. Available from https://archive.org/details/hw-9_20210805. They help to bend the back to either side. "Post up" - offensive move wherein a low post player positions himself, and "seals" his defender off so that he can receive the pass down low on the block, where he can use a "post move" for a score, or quickly pass the ball back outside to an open team-mate for a three-pointer (going "inside-out"). Effect of Desired Takeoff Characteristics on Aircraft Design Space. CC BY 4.0. The back muscles are skeletal muscles. Muscles are made up of individual fibers, The fascia covers and supports the muscles. All we need to do is go to the turn equations and find the desired airspeed and load factor (n), put these into the equation and plot it. transverse process, spinous process) where the muscles attach. Doing this will add another curve to our plot and it might look like the figure below. If our desire is to look at an optimum range we might want to find the ratio of lift to drag that will maximize range (for example, for a propeller driven plane Rmax occurs with flight at [L/D]max or at minimum drag conditions). For example, the serratus posterior superior and the serratus posterior inferior muscles, although located in the back, support breathing, so they may be counted as respiratory muscles. Just as a car cannot get its best gas mileage when the car is moving at top speed, an airplane isnt going to get maximum range at its top cruise speed. They are the sternocleidomastoid, semispinalis capitis, splenius capitis, and longissimus capitis muscles. The "open post offense" (5-out) is yet another. As an example, most piston engine aircraft will cruise at an engine power setting somewhere between 55% and 75% of maximum engine power. Effect of Aircraft Parameters on Takeoff Distance. CC BY 4.0. These are then plotted to find optimum values of wing loading and thrust-to-weight ratio. For climb at constant speed dV/dt = 0 and our equation becomes, T/W = (qCD0)/(W/S) + (kn2/q)(W/S) + (1/V)dh/dt. Lets look at how the equation can be rearranged to help us examine the performance needs in various types of flight. Of course there are limits to be considered. We need to note that to make the plot above we had to choose a cruise speed. One way to resolve this issue is to write our equations in terms of ratios of thrust at altitude divided by thrust at sea level and weight at altitude divided by weight at takeoff. Many different zone sets are used, 2-3, 3-2, 1-3-1, 1-2-2, etc (see "Zone Defense"). A car can be designed to go really fast or to get really good gas mileage, but probably not both. They start at the top of the neck and go down to the tailbone. The value of T/W will depend on the desired flight speed, the wing area, and the efficiency (L/D) of the wing. "Up the line" means you are in a position backed off from this imaginary line, toward the basket, in a position where you can see both ball and your man, prevent the "back-cut", and yet be able to force the ball-handler to pass away from your man.